Infomag  Ąľ
Fast Track - Nuclear Energy
Apr / 2007

Asia is the only region in the world where electricity generating capacity and specifically nuclear power is growing significantly. In East and South Asia there are over 109 nuclear power reactors in operation, 18 under construction and plans to build about a further 110.
The greatest growth in nuclear generation is expected in China, Japan, South Korea and India.
In contrast with North America and most of Western Europe where growth in electricity generating capacity and particularly nuclear power leveled out for many years, a number of countries in East and South Asia are planning and building new power reactors to meet their increasing demands for electricity.
Through to 2010 projected new generating capacity in this region is some 38 GWe per year, and from 2010 to 2020 it is 56 Gwe / yr, up to one third of this replacing retired plant. This is about 36% of the world's new capacity (current world capacity is about 3500 GWe, of which 368 GWe is nuclear). Much of this growth will be in China, Japan, India and Korea.
The nuclear share of this to 2020 is expected to be at least 39 GWe and maybe more if environmental constraints limit fossil fuel expansion. There are currently 109 nuclear power reactors operating in six countries of the region, 18 units under construction (with several more due to start construction in 2007) and firm plans in place to build about another 40 units. In addition, there are about 56 research reactors in fourteen countries of the region. The only major Pacific Rim countries without any kind of research reactor are Singapore and New Zealand. 20 units in operation (17.5 GWe), 1 under construction, 7 planned, also 2 research reactors.
Demand for electricity in Korea has been increasing strongly. In collaboration with US companies, Korea developed the 1000 MWe Korea Standard Nuclear Power Plant which is 95% locally-made, and may be exported to Indonesia and Vietnam. Based on it are the KNSP+ and the AP1400 models.
South Korea has a $1 billion R&D and demonstration program aiming to produce commercial hydrogen using nuclear heat about 2020.
Since the beginning of commercial operation at the Kori unit 1 in 1978, nuclear power has been an important source of energy in Korea. In spite of the slowdown of the nuclear energy industry in the U.S. and Europe, the Korean government has been steadily promoting the nuclear power generation business in response to Korea's increasing electricity demand, seeking new sites for nuclear power plants and supporting the development of commercial technology.
Nuclear activities were initiated when Korea became a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency in 1957. In 1958 the Atomic Energy Law was passed and in 1959 the Office of Atomic Energy was established by the government. The first nuclear reactor to achieve criticality in Korea was a small research unit in 1962.
Ten years later construction began of the first nuclear power plant ¨˘ Kori-1. It started up in 1977 and achieved commercial operation in 1978. After this there was a burst of activity, with eight reactors under construction in the early 1980s.
Korean energy policy has been driven by considerations of energy security and the need to minimize dependence on current imports. The policy is to continue to have nuclear power as a major element of electricity production.
Under the country's 5th long-term power development plan, finalized in January 2000, eight more nuclear units (9200 MWe) were to be constructed by 2015 (in addition to the four then under construction), while two units will be decommissioned about 2008. This would bring nuclear to one third of the country's total generating capacity and it would supply 45% of the electricity.
The Ministry of Science & Technology's third comprehensive nuclear energy development plan, for 2007-11, projected that South Korea should develop its nuclear industry into one of the top five in the world, with about 60% of electricity from nuclear by 2035. As well as emphasis on production of nuclear fuel, the report envisaged construction of the Korean APR-1400 reactor.
The Atomic Energy Commission is the highest decision-making body for nuclear energy policy and is chaired by the Prime Minister. It was set up under the Atomic Energy Act.
The high-level Nuclear Safety Commission (NSC) chaired by the Minister of Science & Technology is responsible for nuclear safety regulation. It is independent of the AEC and was set up by amendment of the Atomic Energy Act in 1996. The regulatory framework is largely modeled on the US NRC.
The Ministry of Science & Technology (MOST) has overall responsibility for nuclear R&D, nuclear safety and nuclear safeguards. The Korean Institute of Nuclear Safety (KINS), an expert safety regulator, comes under MOST, as does the Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI), responsible for R&D.
The Technology Center for Nuclear Control, responsible for nuclear material accounting and the international safeguards regime, was transferred from KAERI to KINS at the end of 2004 and has since been replaced by the National Nuclear Management and Control Agency (NNCA). Action is planned in 2006 to strengthen its independence.
The MOCIE is responsible for energy policy, for the construction and operation of nuclear power plants, nuclear fuel supply and radioactive waste management. KEPCO, KHNP, KNFC, NETEC and heavy engineering operations come under MOCIE.
The main roles of nuclear R&D are to ensure that the national energy supply is secure, and to build the country's nuclear technology base so that it becomes a nuclear exporting country by early in the 21st century. KAERI is the main body responsible for R&D.
Particular goals established in 1997 include reactor design and nuclear fuel, nuclear safety, radioactive waste management, radiation and radioisotopes application, and basic technology research. The last, taking 27% of the funds, includes: development of liquid metal reactors, Direct Use of spent PWR fuel In Candu reactors (DUPIC), application of lasers, and research reactor utilization.
Directions to Policy
In order to realize the goal of the Atomic Energy Act, the Atomic Energy Commission completed the "Direction to Long-term Nuclear Energy Policy Towards the Year 2030" in July 1994. The Direction emphasizes the safe and peaceful use of nuclear energy under a spirit of pursuing a better life in harmony with nature. It describes four primary objectives contributing to the economic, technological development and ultimately improvement of human welfare:
-To enhance the stability in energy supply by promoting nuclear energy as a major energy source of domestic electricity generation;
-To achieve self-reliance in a nuclear reactor and proliferation-resistant nuclear fuel cycle technology through comprehensive and systematic nuclear energy research and development;
-To foster nuclear energy as a strategic export industry by securing international competitiveness through the advancement of nuclear technology, on the basis of active participation and initiatives of the civil sector; and
-To play a leading role in the improvement of human welfare and the advancement of science and technology by expanding the use of nuclear technology in agriculture, engineering, medicine, and industry and by enacting basic nuclear technology research.

For the effective achievement of these four objectives, 10 basic directions of a long-term nuclear energy policy were established. These are:
-To continue expanding the development and utilization of nuclear energy in the future, unless an epoch-making alternative energy source becomes available in the foreseeable future;
-To develop and utilize nuclear energy for peaceful purposes only and to consistently uphold this policy;
-To further strengthen the efforts to improve nuclear safety, recognizing the fact that securing nuclear safety is a prerequisite to the development and utilization of nuclear energy;
-To improve the economy and to strengthen the international competitiveness of domestic industries through the advancement of nuclear technology;
-To increase the public's understanding of and support for nuclear energy while respecting the public's right to know under the ideals of democracy and openness;
-To implement the nuclear energy policy in such a way as to promote a balanced development of the entire spectrum of both nuclear industries and technologies;
-To promote creative research and development activities so that nuclear energy can play a leading role in demonstrating the possibilities of technological innovation and to challenge new areas of science and technology, as an integral part of the national science and technology policies;
-To conduct nuclear research and development activities in collaboration with industries, universities and research institutes by rational division of the responsibilities between the governmental and the non-governmental sectors, in view of the specialisation, complexity, and the immensity of nuclear research;
-To implement the nuclear energy policy on the basis of international understanding and co-operation in order to keep up with international harmonisation; and
-To consistently implement the nuclear energy policy on the basis of long-term perspectives on the techno-economic and socio-political environment.

Comprehensive Plan
In order to achieve the objectives of the long-term nuclear energy policy, the government established a legal basis to formulate the "Comprehensive Nuclear Energy Promotion Plan (CNEPP)" every five years through the amendment to the Atomic Energy Act in January 1995. The CNEPP includes long-term nuclear policy objectives and basic directions, sector-by-sector objectives, and a budget and investment plan.
The Atomic Energy Act stipulates that the Minister of Science and Technology and the heads of the concerned Ministries shall formulate sector-by-sector implementation plans for those areas under their jurisdiction every five years in accordance with the CPPNE, and shall establish and implement annual action plans according to the sector-by-sector implementation plans.
The 1st CNEPP was formulated in June 1997. In July 2001, the Korean government formulated the second CNEPP which included an implementation plan for the five years from 2002 to 2006, and a direction for nuclear energy ploicy towards the year of 2015.
In 2002, to accelerate Radiation Technology (RT) development, Korea enacted the "Act on the Utilisation of Radiation and Radioisotopes". This act established a Radiation and Radioisotopes Research and Development Centre under the KAERI in 2005. The act also aims to secure RT research funding, to formulate related industries and to develop human resources.
The South Korean government plans to produce a long-term plan this year focused nuclear fusion energy with the aim of commercializing the alternative energy source in about 30 years.
``The Assembly passed a bill aimed at promoting research on nuclear fusion energy in late November,ĄŻĄŻ said Mr. Woo Myung-soon, an official at the Ministry of Science and Technology.
``Under the bill, the government is ready to kick in a big investment into the potential-laden nuclear fusion energy beginning this year,ĄŻĄŻ Mr. Woo said.
Nuclear fusion harnesses the same process of plasma fusion that generates the sunĄŻs energy. In this regard, itĄŻs different from todayĄŻs nuclear reactors.
Current reactors use fission that produces energy when atoms are split apart. In comparison, fusion releases energy as atoms are combined.
``To cope with energy challenges, Korea, which does not produce a drop of petroleum, needs to find a new way to create electricity different from the present use of fossil fuels. Nuclear fusion is a good option,ĄŻĄŻ he said.
If successful, its impact would be great as the lithium in one laptop battery would produce electricity equivalent to one generated from 40 tons of coals.
Reactor Development
The first three commercial units - Kori 1 & 2 and Wolsong-1, were bought as turnkey projects. The next six, Kori 3 & 4, Yonggwang 1 & 2, Ulchin 1 & 2, comprised the country's second generation of plants and involved local contractors and manufacturers. At that stage the country had six PWR units derived from Combustion Engineering in USA, two from Framatome in Europe and one from AECL in Canada - of radically different design.
Then in the mid 1980s the Korean nuclear industry embarked upon a plan to standardize the design of nuclear plants and to achieve much greater self-sufficiency in building them. In 1987 the industry entered a ten-year technology transfer program with Combustion Engineering (now Westinghouse) to achieve technical self-reliance, and this was extended in 1997.
A sidetrack from this was the ordering of three more Candu-6 Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) units from AECL in Canada, to complete the Wolsong power plant. These units were built with substantial local input and were commissioned 1997-99. (se also DUPIC in R&D section below)
In 1987 the industry selected the CE System 80 steam supply system as the basis of standardization. Yonggwang 3 & 4 were the first to use this, with great success. A further step in standardization was the Korean Standard Nuclear Plant (KSNP), which from 1984 brought in some further CE System 80 features and incorporated many of the US Advanced Light Water Reactor design requirements. It is the type used for all further 1000 MWe units as well as the two under construction in North Korea.
In the late 1990s, to meet evolving requirements, a program to produce an Improved KSNP, or KSNP+, was started. This involved design improvement of many components, improved safety and economic competitiveness, and optimising plant layout with streamlining of construction programs to reduce capital cost. Shin-Kori 1&2 will represent the first units of the KSNP+ Program, and are expected to be among the safest, most economical and advanced nuclear power plants in the world.
Beyond this, the Advanced Pressurised Reactor-1400 draws on CE System 80+ innovations, which are evolutionary rather than radical. The System 80+ has US Nuclear Regulatory Commission design certification as a third-generation reactor. The APR-1400 was originally known as the Korean Next-Generation Reactor when work started on the project in 1992. The basic design was completed in 1999. It offers enhanced safety and a 60-year design life. Cost is expected to be US$ 1400 per kilowatt, falling to US$ 1200/kW in subsequent units - about 10% less thasn KSNP/OPR-1000. The first APR-1400 units - Shin Kori 3 & 4, are at pre contract stage, and operation is expected by 2013.
KHNP and MOST are negotiating licence renewals to extend operating lifetimes by ten years, starting with Kori-1 and Wolsong-1.
Power uprates of most units occurred at the end of 2005, totalling 693 MWe and reflecting the fact that may had been declaring load factors of over 100% for some time.
In 2005 the capacity factor for South Korean power reactors averaged 96.5% - one of the highest in the world. In 2005 permits for construction of Shin Kori 1 & 2 and Shin Wolsong 1 & 2 were authorised. Some construction of Shin Kori-1 & 2 commenced in November 2005 and at Shin Wolsong 1 & 2 in June 2006. First concrete for Shin Kori 1 was poured in June 2006 and that for unit 2 is due August 2007. For Shin Wolsong first concrete is due June 2007 for unit 1 and June 2008 for unit 2.
In 2005 the KSNP/KSNP+ was rebranded as OPR-1000 (Optimized Power Reactor) apparently for Asian markets, particularly Indonesia and Vietnam. Eight operating units and four under construction are now designated OPR-1000. KHNP is hoping to interest China in the APR 1400.
Construction of the first pair of third-generation APR-1400 reactors - Shin Kori 3 & 4 - was authorized in 2006. In August 2006 KHNP placed a US$ 1.2 billion order with Doosan Heavy Industries for major components of these. Westinghouse has a $300 million contract with Doosan for part of this order. KHNP expects the APR-1400 reactors to cost a total of $5 billion ($1850/kW) and to generate power at US$ 3.54 cents/kWh. First concrete is expected to be poured in October 2008, and construction time of 51 months is envisaged.
Fuel Cycle Facilities
The Korean Atomic Research Institute (KAERI) has developed both PWR and Candu fuel technology. It and Korea Nuclear Fuel Company (KNFC) have supplied PWR fuel since 1990 and Candu PHWR fuel (unenriched) since 1987. KNFC has capacity of 550 t/yr for PWR fuel and 700 t/yr for Candu PHWR fuel.
Uranium for fuel comes from Canada, Australia, and elsewhere - 3560 tU being required in 2006. In 2006 enrichment demand was 1.8 million SWU.
KHNP is also responsible for managing all its radioactive wastes. The Atomic Energy Act of 1988 established a 'polluter pays' principle under which KHNP is levied a fee based on power generated. A fee is also levied on KNFC. The fees are collected by MOST and paid into a national Nuclear Waste Management Fund. A revised waste program was drawn up by the Nuclear Environment Technology Institute (NETEC) and approved by the Atomic Energy Commission in 1998. Used fuel is stored on the reactor site pending construction of a centralized interim storage facility by 2016, eventually with 20,000 tonne capacity. About 6000 t was stored at end of 2002. Dry storage is used for Candu fuel after 6 years cooling. Long-term, deep geological disposal is envisaged.
Low and intermediate-level wastes (LILW) are also stored at each reactor site, the total being about 60,000 drums of 200 litres. Volume reduction (drying, compaction) is undertaken at each site. A 200 ha central disposal repository is envisaged for all this from about 2008, eventually with capacity for 800,000 drums. It will involve shallow geological disposal of conditioned wastes, with vitrification being used on ILW from about 2006 to increase public acceptability.
NETEC took over the task of finding repository sites after several abortive attempts by KAERI and MOST 1988-96. In 2000 it called for local communities to volunteer to host a disposal facility.